The following paper was written for a Methods and Philosophy of History course and examines how the friendship America and France initially experienced eventually collapsed amid the early 1800s.
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| The XYZ Affair |
A Collapsing Friendship: Franco-American Diplomacy in the Early 19th Century
Within the early stages of American independence, the relatively small republic desperately sought international aid to bolster their claims of sovereignty. As such, the Americans turned to France for financial and martial help during the American Revolution. While this aid was initially granted, Franco-American relations soon began to shift. Indeed, by 1812, the states were close to open warfare. As each state developed early perspectives on national identity, several key diplomatic misunderstandings led to the sharp deterioration in Franco-American amity; this shift was significantly fueled by each country's interaction with a third power - Great Britain.
These critical misunderstandings are varying in nature, but each profoundly affected the diplomatic relations between France and the United States. For instance, the misinterpretation of Anglo-American relations by France and the complex shifting power struggle among the three states are key to understanding the deterioration of Franco-American diplomacy. Great Britain was the initial link between the other two states; the Franco-American friendship grew out of the United States' War of Independence with Great Britain. As that conflict came to a close, a martial and economic alliance was founded between France and America. While this treaty provided for an initial intense friendship, it also offered several opportunities for miscommunication.
The 1798 Treaty of Alliance between France and the United States officially founded an economic and martial agreement between those two states against the British. This work listed several key points establishing this friendship. For instance, Article Three of that document states that "The two contracting Parties shall each on its own Part, and in the manner it may judge most proper, make all the efforts in its Power, against their common Enemy, in order to attain the end proposed." France and the United States were to reduce British power in whatever method was deemed necessary. Yet, arising from these clauses came a precedent that was later broken in two ways.
While France and the United States had allied to defeat Great Britain, America eventually found it profitable to reestablish friendship with her mother country. The connections between the freed colonies and their previous colonizer remained strong; economic ties were especially strong. For instance, much of New England relied upon Great Britain for job opportunities and trade. After the War of Independence, the populace of that region demanded a renewal of trade in order to boost their economy. As a result, the 1794 Jay's Treaty was enacted. Beneficial for both Great Britain and the United States, this treaty essentially reestablished ties of friendship between the two states. Indeed, the opening article offers clear evidence of a desire for renewed amity: "There shall be a firm inviolable and universal Peace, and a true and sincere Friendship between His Britannic Majesty, His Heirs and Successors, and the United States of America." Furthermore, the treaty called for Great Britain to remove troops from the Northwest Territory. In return, the United States would honor debts to Great Britain that had been incurred before the War of Independence. Yet, the treaty deeply angered France, who saw America's new alliance with Great Britain as a betrayal of her coalition with France. Additionally, the Franco-American 1778 Treaty of Alliance led to a controversial predicament for the American government amidst the French Revolution. A decade after the alliance had been formed between America and France, the latter experienced her own revolution. This tumultuous event provided for complete and irrevocable governmental shifts in France; her economy, military, political foundations, and social order were dramatically altered. Her diplomatic relations with the United States changed as well. As the 1778 Treaty called for a martial alliance between the two states, the French government firmly believed that America should come to her aid in the Wars of the Coalition following the French Revolution. However, the friendship America held for France was, even then, beginning to slip. Although she had depended heavily upon France for success in her recent War of Independence, many felt that the new republic should establish herself without the aid of European powers, who had a definite history of exploiting the New World. Thus, "Post-War nationalism contributed to the slighting of France because it was difficult to exult in the glory of America while at the same time stressing the recent dependence on France." Because of this, America found it problematic to support France during the Wars of the Coalition. In fact, little assistance came from the new American republic, for a crisis had formed within American politics. Many, including Thomas Jefferson, desired for American recognition of France's new government. Yet, this recognition did not entail military aid as well. Many felt that the French Revolutionary government was too radical; the execution of King Louis XVI had bolstered these fears. President Washington eventually decided not to assist France militarily in her new wars. His Neutrality Proclamation of 1794 declared that France would receive no martial aid from the United States.
"Whereas it appears that a state of war exists between Austria, Prussia, Sardinia, Great Britain, and the United Netherlands on the one part and France on the other, and the duty and interest of the United States require that they should with sincerity and good faith adopt and pursue a conduct friendly and impartial toward the belligerent powers."
In order to avoid supporting the radicals controlling the French government, America resolved to withhold aid. However, further consequences would arise from this controversial decision. Since America was establishing a renewed semi-friendship with Great Britain, as well as withholding aid for France's European military struggle, France responded in turn. This reprisal came in the form of the infamous XYZ affair. When John Adams took the Presidential office in 1797, he hoped to bolster the dying friendship between America and France. A special diplomatic mission was dispatched for Paris. Yet, these envoys were met with a scandalous reception. Before Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, France's Foreign Minister, agreed to even meet with Adams' diplomats, he demanded a massive bribe. The humiliating effects of this demand provided for a further degeneration of Franco-American diplomacy. The next phase of diplomatic deterioration included two facets: the undeclared naval Quasi-War between France and the United States and the various Congressional laws enacted to limit French activity within America. As they moved into the Nineteenth Century, each state began to feel less friendly towards the other. Within a decade, the two states would even be on the verge of official declarations of war.
In the wake of the humiliating XYZ Affair, the United States desired revenge for France's slight. Concurrently, France still burned with feelings of betrayal over the Jay's Treaty. As such, the states sought ways to avenge themselves upon the other. The Quasi-War emerged out of these desires. The Quasi-War was an undeclared martial conflict between the two countries upon the oceans. As the states remained separated by the Atlantic, no military operations would be conducted on land amid the Quasi-War. Instead, a conflict of naval forces arose. However, "naval forces" may be a misnomer in regards to the American fleet. For America "had no navy. Except for a few small revenue cutters, each manned by crews of six men, it did not have a single national vessel in commission." Thus, the term "Quasi-War" generally reflected attacks from French naval vessels upon American shipping. Powerless to stop the French attacks, America grew increasingly resentful towards France. Meanwhile, French attacks grew in intensity and frequency. The waters of the Caribbean Sea provided for many such assaults. In these waters, American shipping was repeatedly captured, the country's merchantmen suffering for the two governments' disagreements. "French captors, as has been indicated, looted ships, sometimes committed atrocities against crew members and passengers, and frequently condemned vessels illegally." However, through American regional cooperation, the country was eventually able to combat the French attacks. As a result of an unrelated piracy conflict with Algiers, America was in the process of forming a navy when the Quasi-War was initialed. While no vessels were completed, several powerful "super-frigates" were in the midst of construction. Indeed, these vessels were designed to out-sail any European frigate, and once completed, would pose a serious threat to the French naval forces attacking American shipping. As such, the construction process for these vessels was increased; Adams' administration was adamant that the naval armaments be finished. Eventually, the new American navy was formed and began taking French prizes of war. Thus, both combatants in the semi-war adopted increasingly hostile stances toward the other. While naval engagements continued amid the Caribbean Sea and off the coasts of the United States, other measures were being conducted by the United States' Congress. In conjunction with the martial efforts of the Quasi-War, the U.S. Congress began to institute a series of legislation designed to protect America from enemy aliens and prevent seditious acts from undermining American government. These works of legislation, the Alien and Sedition Acts, included four distinct laws, each with implied slights toward France.
The first of the Alien and Sedition acts was the Naturalization Act. Passed in the early summer of 1798, this piece of legislation increased the residence requirement for naturalization from five years to fourteen years. Next, the Alien Act was put into place. This work offered the President the freedom to arrest, imprison, and expel any enemy alien who has been deemed dangerous to the country. Furthermore, as described in the next act, the Alien Enemies Act, the American government offered the President the ability to apprehend and expel any resident aliens if their home countries were at war with the United States. Finally, the Sedition Act repressed freedom of speech by imposing restrictions and making it illegal to be caught "writing, printing, uttering or publishing any false, scandalous and malicious writing or writings against the government of the United States." Within these pieces of legislation, Adams' government had granted itself nearly tyrannical power in an attempt to strike back at France. "'The alien and sedition acts,' Jefferson said in January 1799, 'have already operated as a powerful sedative of the XYZ inflammation.'" This legislation would have other effects as well. The legislative backlash against the French also possessed political ramifications within America. For their part, the Alien and Sedition acts came to be extraordinarily unpopular. Indeed, fierce opposition, led by Thomas Jefferson and his Republicans, arose. This opposition would eventually label the acts as unconstitutional, and the issue would be a contributing factor to Jefferson's election to the Presidency in his Revolution of 1800. The shifting political atmosphere would be mirrored in France as well; new leaders of differing ideologies were emerging in that country. Napoleon Bonaparte came to power in November of 1799, and his ascension would come to alter Franco-American diplomacy. With the arrival of two new leaders in France and the United States, the unofficial Quasi-War came to a close. Furthermore, Franco-American diplomacy experienced a newfound, if brief, strengthening. As Napoleon and Jefferson began to consolidate their power structures, peace became advantageous for both parties. Because of this, an American delegation met with French diplomats in Paris. They felt "it was their duty to conclude a treaty rather than return empty-handed. Their decision, they felt, served the interest of their government and of their people." Stringent efforts were conducted in order to reach a settlement. The American envoys succeeded in their mission, and the Convention of Mortefontaine was reached. The Convention of Mortefontaine, variably called the Convention of 1800, established "a firm, inviolable, and universal peace, and a true and sincere Friendship between the French Republic, and the United States of America." All naval hostiles were ceased, captured ships were to be returned, and free trade was reestablished. Essentially, all remnants of the discontent over America's adoption of the 1794 Jay's Treaty and France's use of the XYZ affair were to be forgotten. Peace and friendship were once more restored to the two countries. While this amity would not remain indefinitely, it did provide for a pivotal event in American history. In the years immediately following the cessation of hostilities during the Quasi-War, France and America experienced a renewed friendship. This harmony is most notable as it allowed for the Louisiana Purchase to occur. This monumental land transfer transpired for several reasons. For her part, America desperately wanted to expand. While her territorial holdings were sufficient for her population at the time, the country was continuing to expand rapidly. As such, Jefferson sought an outlet for continued growth. He found it amid Napoleon's willingness to abandon his North American holdings. As a result of his worsening naval war with Great Britain, coupled with the dreadful situation in Haiti, Napoleon came to see the futility of attempting to maintain a trans-continental empire. Because of this, he was also willing to transfer the entire Louisiana territory to American control. Indeed,
"The First Consul of the French Republic desiring to give to the United States a strong proof of his friendship doth hereby cede to the United States in the name of the French Republic forever and in full Sovereignty the said territory with all its rights and appurtenances."
With this acquiescence, America gained vast, new territory, and France was given funds to continue its defensive war against the insatiable Great Britain. Yet, the "friendship" of which Napoleon spoke was not to last. While America remained geographically and ideologically distant from Europe, events there would further deteriorate Franco-American relations. The Wars of the Coalition against Napoleonic France were increasing in scope and magnitude. The Ancien Régime monarchies, led by Great Britain, continued to resent the Revolutionary principles of France. Constant warfare was underway to depose Napoleon and return France to a pre-Revolutionary state of affairs. Within this English-led maelstrom, Franco-American diplomacy again began to falter.
Previously, American shipping had been attacked during the Quasi-War. As President Jefferson's second term reached its conclusion, this state of affairs began to resurface. As President Madison took office, America, still a declared neutral power, was once again being exploited. Combatants on each side of the War of the Coalitions were again capturing American shipping as prizes of war. These acts led to debates on how America should conduct her neutrality. Some, including Madison, held that an increase in military spending would indicate a hostile nature belying the country's neutrality. Indeed, if Great Britain were to notice an increase in warships patrolling the oceans, her government would grow resentful of the increased American presence on the oceans. Rather than implementing this strategy, the President desired to enact economic sanctions against opposing powers. This tactic, put in place until American shipping rights were respected on the high seas, would ensure that Great Britain and France suffered from their actions while America continued to maintain her peaceful mantle of neutrality.
Conversely, others held a different approach to neutrality. They argued that instead of utilizing economic restrictions, the United States must adopt an "'energetic' neutrality." This policy indicated a level of armed impartiality, which "necessarily implied increased defense expenditures, especially on the navy." With increased armament, some argued, America would be respected as a power ready for war; thus, her shipping rights would be respected. France, on the other hand, was able to justify her exploitation of neutral American shipping through the actions of Great Britain. "To hear it from Paris, London had started this cycle of depredation, having been the first to violate the rights of neutral carriers. France was merely responding in kind. What Britain had begun Britain must end. Only then would France follow suit." Because the British were gaining through their attacks on U.S. shipping, France reasoned that they could as well. Napoleon, writing to his Minister of Justice, ordered that captures of American shipping be "settled on the spot; there can be no doubt about the matter." If Great Britain would violate America's neutrality, France, attacked on all sides, could also not afford to honor the United States' impartiality. Because of this, a growing resentment towards France was again born among Americans. In fact, the British and French exploitation of American rights and goods fostered so much anger within the United States, that another war was eventually declared. In 1812, President Madison led his country to war against Great Britain. However, another vital and relatively unknown fact must come to light here. "Shortly before Congress declared war on Britain in June 1812, the United States Senate came within two votes of declaring war on France as well." Indeed, this fact indicates a truly incredible shift. Only thirty years previous, France and the United States had signed a treaty of alliance. Each state had since come to abuse the other for personal gain, abandoning the friendship established through the 1778 Treaty of Alliance. How can this dynamic shift be accounted for? After examining the evidence, it becomes clear that Great Britain's involvement with and relations to the other two countries is the primary cause for their deterioration of Franco-American diplomatic amity. Mutual hatred of Great Britain brought France and the United States together amidst the American War of Independence. Similarly, it was America's reestablishment of friendship with Great Britain through the 1794 Jay's Treaty that would launch France and the United States into its harrowing diplomatic decline. The XYZ Affair was largely caused by Jay's Treaty; the Quasi-War was a result of the XYZ Affair. Later, the Louisiana Purchase was conducted by Napoleon in order to gain resources for his combat against Great Britain. Finally, it was Great Britain's continual abuse of American neutrality that caused France to respond likewise, further worsening Franco-American diplomacy. Every aspect of the diplomatic deterioration can be traced to Great Britain's involvement.
As a result of mutual abhorrence of Great Britain at the end of the Eighteenth Century, coupled with America's struggle for independence, an alliance between America and France was born. However, this amity soon fell into decline as a result of diplomatic miscommunications brought about by Great Britain's interaction with the other two states. By the outset of the War of 1812, Franco-American relations were on the verge of outright declared war. While rather extraordinary, this dynamic shift is truly reflective of its tumultuous age, a time in which humanity transitioned into the modern world.
R. R. Palmer, "The Dubious Democrat: Thomas Jefferson in Bourbon France" in Political Science Quarterly, Sept. 1957, 388. Accessed April 18th, 2011 from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2145325 ; John T. Woolley and Gerhard Peters, eds. "Proclamation 4 - Neutrality of the United States in the War Involving Austria, Prussia, Sardinia, Great Britain, and the United Netherlands Against France" in The American Presidency Project. Accessed April 19th, 2011 from http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=65475 . Peter P. Hill, Napoleon's Troublesome Americans: Franco-American Relations, 1804-1815 (Washington D.C.: Potomac Books, 2005), 21. ; Mary Loyd, trans., Letter to M. Regnier in New Letters of Napoleon I (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1897), 248.
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